The reliability of the FOMO questionnaire was assessed and showed a Cronbach’s α of 0.749. A composite FOMO score was calculated by summarizing the students’ responses to the questionnaire; the mean score was 28.9. These scores ranged from 10 to 47, indicating a moderate level of FOMO: 34.0%, 40.8%, and 38.8% of students, for example, responded ‘moderately’ to ‘get anxious when I don’t know what my friends are up to,’ ‘sometimes I wonder if I spend too much time keeping up with what is going on,’ and ‘it bothers me when I miss an opportunity to meet up with friends,’ respectively [Table 2].

Of the respondents, 76.2% use at least one smartphone. The main reason for using a smartphone in the classroom was to chat (30.6%) and send messages (24.5%). However, fewer than a quarter of the students reported using their smartphone for learning purposes. During class time, 73.5% of the students reported that they kept their smartphone on ‘silent,’ and 49.7% of them ignored any mobile notifications received [Table 3]. No statically significant differences in FOMO were identified between students based on their number of smartphones (p = 0.267), their purpose of use in the classroom (p = 0.600), their status (p = 0.383), or their notification responses (p = 0.252).

With regard to students’ academic profiles, the mean GPA was 75.3±7.5; more than half of the students were in their third (26.5%) or fourth (30.6%) academic year; 42.9% were under study probation, and approximately 70% slept for between six and eight hours a day [Table 4]. An evaluation of students’ academic profiles showed a significant correlation between students’ FOMO experiences and their daily sleeping hours (r = -0.169, p = 0.041), whereas no relationships with other academic variables, such as academic year (p = 0.848), history of academic rewards (p = 0.573), and history of probation (p = 0.873) were found.

To understand further whether the students’ GPA (the dependent variable) could be predicted by their FOMO experiences (the independent variable), we calculated linear regression; however, no significant correlation was found (T (1, 145) = -1.012, p = 0.313), with an r2 of 0.007 [Table 5].

Discussion

Smartphones and their applications play an essential role in many millennial students’ social and academic lives when exchanging information, connecting to others, and using entertainment. Few studies have turned their attention to the impact of FOMO on students’ academic lives; thus, our study aimed to build robust empirical measures of FOMO among undergraduate students, specifically to create a brief and rich platform of information about students’ experiences of FOMO and its impact on their academic performance.

Across the study results, which are representative of 147 students, a moderate level of FOMO experiences existed compared with other investigations.44 One study found that students find a platform through these devices and its applications for emotional support and social engagement.45

Neither age, marital status, living arrangements, nor substance use pointed towards a relationship with FOMO experiences, which supports previous findings.11,46,47 However, our results highlight significant gender differences in FOMO experiences; male students seem to have higher levels of FOMO than female students (their mean FOMO scores are 29.8 and 26.6, respectively). Similarly, being male or young is associated with high levels of FOMO experiences.10 While both males and females socialize with their families and friends through their mobile devices, females tend to emphasize their family connections, whereas males are more inclined to include both their friends and families in their social media.48 Males are more competitive when exploring and creating via smartphones and thus rely on their smartphones to complete all their tasks. While males use smartphones for learning purposes, entertainment, and social connections, females consider smartphones to be a method of social bonding.49,50

Our study indicated a negative and significant correlation between sleeping hours and level of FOMO; the fewer hours students sleep, the higher their level of FOMO. It is not just the excessive use of electronic devices in general that can affect sleep quantity and quality; studies have accused smartphones and social media misuse of leading to sleep deprivation.51,52 Students may keep their devices on vibrate mode to enable them to respond constantly to their notifications; for many, social media could be connected with their hours of sleep hygiene, and routine.53 One study investigated the influence of FOMO experiences on college students’ sleeping patterns; the study found that students may delay or miss sleep in favor of opportunities to socialize and follow events even if these things did not happen.15 Moreover, chatting and texting are associated with less sleep.53,54

Despite the moderate level of FOMO experiences among undergraduate students, our study indicated no relationship between students’ FOMO experiences and their GPA (p = 0.313). However, our results were inconsistent with some previous works11 in which students with lower levels of FOMO obtained lower GPAs. Other studies that investigated the problematic use of smartphones and social media presented a significant and negative relationship between these variables.40,41 Indeed, we can infer that prolonged smartphone and social media use is not necessarily problematic. Intensive use of smartphones can benefit students’ academic life; thus, FOMO can discriminate between the problematic versus the non-problematic uses of these devices.17

Despite the students’ high GPA scores, excessive smartphone use among undergraduate students could also be explained by their desire to achieve a sense of balance in their new academic environment, in which students might use all the available resources and work diligently to achieve their goals. In this regard, students need to adjust to their academic lives, college requirements, and future plans. FOMO could act as a mediator, linking their college requirements with their social engagements.55

A study conducted among university students in Oman emphasized the negative consequences of university life maladjustment for developing and experiencing stress and triggers that lead to depression due to the potential loss of traditional social support and supervision.56 Indeed, living away from family and friends may add additional burdens to students’ well-being and academic achievements. Thus, the culture of Arabic families, especially in Oman, emphasizes students’ desire to be connected continuously to their support system, in which they can present their activities and be updated with those of others as well as communicate easily with their classmates and instructors.57 Students who maintain such relationships with family and friends through this support system are more likely to perform well at college.58,59 Students, therefore, rely on their smartphones and social media to collaborate, work, connect, and facilitate their academic life.24

Our study has some limitations that are congruent with previous studies in which the sample size and sample technique are the key issues. It would be very beneficial to study such phenomena within a large sample that presents varied geo-sociodemographic properties. Future studies should also address the cultural differences, social support, and pattern of smartphone use in FOMO experiences as a mediator of students’ academic achievements and sleeping properties.

Conclusion

Smartphones and their applications play a significant role in global communications; they have become a mark of our civilization and support the spirit of human connections. FOMO is considered one of the factors that might affect students’ reactions, responses, and behaviors. The university students surveyed experienced a moderate level of FOMO, and frequent assessment of this issue among university students is important by academic administrators, and the specialized professionals would be useful to develop appropriate interventions. Workshops on both a national and a global basis are also highly recommended to collaborate the efforts of colleges, academic administrators, and mobile companies to discuss and solve the rapid growth of such phenomena.

Disclosure

The authors declared no conflicts of interest. No funding was received for this study.

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